Animals in Anatolian and Turkish History

Mine Yıldırım (Kadir Has University), “The Rabies Conundrum: Compassionate Care and Public Health Concerns in Istanbul” (EN)

Rabies, a deadly zoonotic specter, haunts the intricate human-dog relations of Istanbul and Anatolia. Since the early twentieth century, entrenched practices of caring for street dogs have tragically clashed with fears of rabies transmission and municipally orchestrated decaninization campaigns and random dog culls. This abstract unpacks the multifaceted interplay between rabies, animal welfare, and human compassion, exploring its impact on responsible ownership, street dog management, and the very fabric of human-animal bonds in Istanbul’s modern history. Delving into the emotional tightrope between care and public health concerns, the abstract exposes the paradox of compassion, where empathy intertwines with fear, fracturing trust and jeopardizing lives. It analyzes the labyrinthine challenges of rabies control: limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and conflicting priorities. Vaccination, sterilization, and population control initiatives struggle to take hold in the hearts and minds of Istanbulites who cherish their canine companions. Drawing on news articles, memoirs, fictions, official writings, and municipal decrees, the abstract explores this intricate historical, political, and cultural landscape. It illuminates the shifting dynamics of care and violence, revealing their impact on human-dog relations in the modern history of Istanbul.

Jeanne Dubino (Appalachian State University), “Canine Worlds: Orhan Pamuk’s Past and Present Encounters with Street Dogs” (EN)

Nineteenth-century European travelers wrote extensively about the street dogs they encountered in Istanbul. Their travelogues greatly interest the Nobel prize-winning novelist Orhan Pamuk, who reflects upon them in his writing about his excursions throughout his native city. Two of his works of nonfiction, Other Colors: Essays and a Story (1999) and Istanbul: Memories and a Story (2003), also include narratives of his own traipses through Istanbul’s neighborhoods. In several of the essays and chapters included in these collections, Pamuk refers both to the dogs described by nineteenth-century travelers and to those whom he directly meets. In my paper, I plan to address both the recursive nature and the present-day immediacy of these two collections by focusing on Pamuk’s representations of street dogs. The hüzün, or melancholy, a strong sense of pastness, that pervades both Other Colors and Istanbul applies as well to Pamuk’s references to previous travelers’ dog tales. In his depictions of his own encounters, Pamuk, on the other hand, renders street dogs as very much part of the present day, especially in the essay titled “What I Know about Dogs” (Other Colors 48-49). In 1854, the British traveler Thomas Galland Horton wrote, “The dogs of Constantinople are among its wonders” (33). Through his writing about street dogs, Pamuk keeps that sense of wonder alive.

F. Nihan Ketrez (Istanbul Bilgi University), “What’s in a Dog’s Name? Dog- vs. Cat-Naming Practices in Modern Turkey” (EN)

Pet-naming practices reflect the attitudes of pet-owners towards their pets and their place in their lives and society. In the US and other western countries, pet animals are given names that are reserved for human and this trend is considered an endorsement of family membership granted to pet animals (Abel 2007; Abel & Kruger 2007; Brandes 2012; Safir 1985, among others). In this study, 247 cat and dog names reported in questionnaires filled out by Turkish speaking pet owners living in metropolitan cities in Turkey were examined in terms of the proportion of human (e.g., Leyla) vs. non-human (e.g., Lokum) as well as foreign (e.g., Goldy) versus domestic (e.g., Paşa) names. It was observed that cats were more likely to have human names. They also had more traditional Turkish names (e.g., Leyla, Ömer) while dogs were more likely to have more modern or foreign names (e.g., Cesur, Vegas). The differences observed in dog- vs cat-naming practices are evaluated in relation to the status of pet-dogs in the modernization and secularism of Modern Turkey. Cats have always had free access to homes in Turkish society. Although Turkish people were fond of dogs, as well, and enjoyed keeping them around, they were granted limited access to homes because of their ritually impure status in Islam (Fortuny 2014; Shick 2019). Gündoğdu (2023) reports that this attitute changed during the last century of the Ottoman Empire with the modernization and westernization trends. Breed dogs were imported from Europe and having a pet dog at home became a symbol of modernity. Pet-naming trends observed in the present study complements and confirms the observation regarding the status of dogs vs. cats in the history of Modern Turkey.

M. Emir Küçük (Boğaziçi University), “Horses of the Constantinople Tramway Company” (TR)

By focusing on the horses of the Constantinople Tramway Company, this paper seeks to highlight the significance of animal labor in the extensive economic and socio-cultural transformations that occurred in nineteenth-century Istanbul.

There were horses in Istanbul before the tramways started to operate. However, with the introduction of horse-drawn tramways in 1871, hundreds of horses belonging to the Tramway Company, a joint stock company, were passing through the busiest parts of the city and sheltering in neighborhoods. This increase in the number and visibility of horses in the city caused changes in the physical and social structure of the city. Neighborhood residents’ responses to the stables of the tramway company, accidents, contagious diseases among horses, and the development of veterinary services are the main issues of this research. Moreover, the social relations in the city were not limited to humans: The relationship between dogs, the other inhabitants of the streets of Istanbul, and the tramway company’s horses is also the research subject.

By considering the feeding, stables, and health of the horses, this study considers horses not only as laborers of the tramway company but also as the actors that enabled the company’s functioning and shaped the everyday life of Istanbul.

Gönenç Göçmengil (Istanbul University), “Possessing Nature in the Late Ottoman Period: Afterlife of Animals as Skeletons and Taxidermy Collections” (EN)

Throughout its history, live animals in the Ottoman Empire were turned into commodities of spectacle-entertainment, either as labor or for personal charisma and curiosity. Although this understanding continued until the mid-19th century, with the proliferation of zoo premises, personal hunting collections and educational-museum collections, the skeletons of these animals or their taxidermy collections continued to be used in other ways after their end of life.

This post-life use is generally documented from the mid-19th century onwards and is primarily characterized by collections used for medical and zoological education. Parallel to this, the afterlife of the animals collected irregularly around the Ottoman Sultanate and the Yıldız Palace turned into a rare cabinet of curiosities consisting of specimens, including stuffed animals and skeletons, scattered around the “proto” zoo.
In the late 19th and 20th centuries, both in Ottoman medical, veterinary, and secondary educational institutions, as well as in American (Robert College, Merzifon Anatolian College) and French (Saint Joseph) schools and their museums, taxidermy collections were systematically assembled, experts were brought in for taxidermy and/or attempts were made to train them.

In the late Ottoman period, the boundaries of “possessing nature” generally disappeared with little trace of the collections gathered around the Ottoman Sultanate due to poor preservation, those collected for education in schools were generally damaged by institutional apathy and neglect of the specimens, and today, except for a few successful examples, both the collections themselves and the history of their acquisition have been lost. In general, the use of animals in the afterlife has alternated between being pragmatic curiosity cabinet objects or educational specimens, but in neither case has the preservation and survival of the collections been long-lasting.

Süreyya İsfendiyaroğlu (Istanbul Bird Observatory Association & Istanbul-Cerrahpaşa University) & Ömral Ünsal Özkoç (Nature Research Association & Çankırı Karatekin University), “How Did Three Game Birds in Istanbul Become Regionally Extinct before the Foundation of the Republic?” (TR)

Istanbul is the gateway to Anatolia for many explorers, travelers, and natural scientists, and for some, it is the essence of “Eastern travel.” Pierre Belon, who reached Istanbul with a diplomatic delegation in 1547, shares his first bird records and observations about Istanbul. Italian Domenico Sestini (1750-1832) is a numismatist, archaeologist, botanist, and explorer. Collecting samples from Anatolia between 1781-1782, Sestini provides a list of 116 bird species from Istanbul in the fourth part of his notes titled Opuscoli del Signor Abate Domenico Sestini, published in Florence in 1786. This inventory is the first systematic bird list published about Istanbul. Following him, Lorenz Rigler (1815-1862), a physician practicing in Istanbul, made regular bird observations and published his diary in Vienna in 1852 in two volumes. Pyotr Alexandrovich “Tchihatchef” (1812-1890), although better known for his contributions to Geology, is a comprehensive naturalist and geographer. He worked at the Russian Embassy from 1845-1848 and published his work Le Bosphore et Constantinople in 1864-1877, which went through three editions. Jean Gérard Amédée Alléon is the first known Istanbulite ornithologist. Born in 1838 in Büyükdere as the fourth generation descendant of a Levantine family, he pursued natural sciences and taxidermy. His publication Istanbul Birds shares historical ornithological data about 262 species in Istanbul from 1888-1894. In his published list titled Birds of the Istanbul Bosphorus and Surroundings in 26 parts, he provides detailed records of 334 species. Hans Kummerloeve, who came to Anatolia in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, compiled his bird observations in Anatolia by examining these records in his series of articles and books titled Zur Kenntnis der Avifauna Kleinasiens.

When these studies are examined in a historical context, it is observed that the populations of three hunted bird species, which were intensively hunted and valued for their meat, have disappeared in Istanbul. Forest grouse (Lyrurus tetrix) and grey partridge (Perdix perdix), whose first records were shared by Lorenz Rigler and Pierre de Tchihatchef, and the populations of Turaç (Francolinus francolinus), shared by Rigler and Evliya Çelebi, have been evaluated. The disappearance of these three species and how their populations in Istanbul have been hunted down over the previous potential distribution areas and two centuries have been examined.

Meliha Nur Çerçinli (Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı), “Animals in Ottoman Narratives from the Perspective of Education and Curiosity” (TR)

The contribution of animals to many areas of life is an undeniable fact. It is seen that this reality is easily accepted within the framework of an understanding that puts people at the center and does not change according to conditions or point of view. As a matter of fact, it is obvious that animals exist in a wide range of different areas, from nutrition to labor, from science to economy, and the benefits provided by this existence have facilitated the lives of human beings at every stage of history. In this context, it is seen that they are the subject of many scientific and social research issues and that they have ceased to be a side element that contributes to human life, especially in modern societies, with the awareness of the protection of all kinds of rights. This being the case, it is impossible for this importance of animals not to spread to the human literary world. As a matter of fact, it has been noted that some characteristics of animals are mentioned in stories, novels and poems written from ancient times to the present, and in visual arts, they are sometimes depicted as a human, and sometimes they are depicted with words describing humans.

The aim of this article is to open a door to watch the reflections of animals’ contributions to life in the human world of thought. In this context, how animals gained a place as an intermediary in the public perception of the Ottoman Empire through the perspective of “education and curiosity” in the 19th and 20th centuries, and their direct or indirect effects on the organization process of knowledge will be examined. Especially stories, novels and pamphlets of education-centered press and educators will be used as sources.

İbrahim Can Usta (Boğaziçi University), “New Agricultural Instruments in Early-Twentieth-Century Anatolia: Did Steam Power Emancipate the Oxen?” (EN)

Until the second half of the twentieth century, the Anatolian countryside joined most corners of the world where reigned an energy regime built upon non-human animals. In this regime, oxen plowed the fields, mules carried the water, and cattle heated the houses that were constructed on top of the barns. This regime also expressed a relationship of interdependence and partnership between humans and non-human animals.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the first pieces of steam-powered agricultural machinery appeared in the Ottoman Empire. This new technology remained far from threatening the popularity of the traditional plowing practice that relied on the usage of a pair of oxen. It neither threatened the established social inequalities in the countryside. It was not a coincidence that steam-powered locomobiles worked the vast fields of landholders. The lack of capital, infrastructure, equipment, and skilled labor stood against the extensive mechanization of Anatolian agriculture, which mainly relied on small-scale subsistence farming.

Archival findings bring forth that Ottoman authorities and intellectuals favored and highly encouraged the purchase and widespread usage of the developed instruments of agriculture. These machines were praised as a means of agricultural development. However, such a mechanization had no promise to alleviate the burden on the shoulders of the oxen. Without these laborious beasts, the new machines could not be moved an inch. The arrival of a number of steam-powered instruments would not mean an automatic alteration of the energy regime in agricultural production in Anatolia.

This paper will elaborate on the early-twentieth-century efforts for mechanization in Ottoman agriculture from a perspective framed by labor, capital, and non-human nature.

Deniz Dölek-Sever (Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit University), “Biopolitics of Interspecies Relations: Animals and Humans in the Late Ottoman Legal Regulations” (TR)

The nineteenth century was a period of radical change in the relationship between humans and nonhuman animals. In this century, the Ottoman Empire also began to modernize in a variety of areas. Law was one of these fields. In this paper, I examine various legal texts and regulations that were introduced to prevent the theft of animals through a biopolitical analysis, considering the key role of legal regulations in reconstructing human-animal relations in the Anthropocene.

From the 1870s onwards, the increasing cases of animal theft in various parts of the Ottoman country prompted both the central and local governments to take several legal measures to prevent this crime. Starting with a proclamation (ilanname) issued in 1872, the legal regulations did not lead to a decrease in thefts over the years. Therefore, a provisional law (geçici kanun) was issued in 1913, which provided for quite radical measures. In addition to these general measures, local legal regulations were also enacted in some provinces and sanjaks where cases of animal theft were frequent. When we analyze all these legal texts and regulations from the perspective of animal history by using the conceptual framework of biopolitics, we draw conclusions not only about the changing dynamics of the human-animal relationship in the nineteenth century, but also about the ways in which the state governed the animal and human species. To illustrate these conclusions, I evaluate legal regulations from two perspectives: as a means of information gathering, control and order; and as a means of discipline and punishment.

In addition to secondary sources on biopolitics, this study is mainly based on Ottoman primary sources, including correspondence between the center and local governments, legal texts, and parliamentary records.

Onat Ozan Ata (New York University), “Transformations in Nomadic Livestock Practices: The Impact of Fırka-i Islahiye in Ottoman Çukurova” (EN)

In Ottoman Çukurova (historical Cilicia), nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes constituted a substantial portion of the local population, engaging primarily in animal breeding pastoralism and diverse forms of seasonal mobility across a vast region extending from Central Anatolia to Syria. This paper examines the profound changes brought about by the nineteenth-century Fırka-i Islahiye (the Reform Division operation,  initiated by imperial and local authorities to consolidate state authority in this region.  The operation, mainly driven by the objectives of increasing taxation and conscription  capacity, significantly altered the socio-political and economic landscape of Çukurova.  The Fırka-i Islahiye intervention not only transformed the traditional order in the region but also reshaped the dynamics of human-animal relationships and pastoralist  practices. Prior to the forced settlement policy of Fırka-i Islahiye, livestock held key socio economic and political significance, playing pivotal roles in negotiations and  confrontations between tribal elites and imperial agents. Moreover, these animals were  integral to local culture, featuring prominently in poems and legends. The subsequent  forced settlement process, coupled with the dominance of cotton monoculture, led to the commodification of livestock. This shift resulted in the minimization of animal  breeding pastoralism and the elimination of the non-economic functions of livestock in  Çukurova. Drawing primarily from documents in the Ottoman State Archives, in this  paper I explore how the forced settlement of tribes and the promotion of commercial  agriculture transformed livestock from companions of nomads and central figures in  provincial politics into mere sources of meat in the late nineteenth-century Ottoman Çukurova.

Theodoros Tzanatos (University of Crete) & Elias Kolovos (University of Crete), “‘Hayvanata eza etmeden’: A Decree on Animal Slaughter in Istanbul” (EN)

Our presentation is based on a copy of an Ottoman decree of the Grand Vizier, included in a manuscript codex located in the Holy Theological School of Halki in Heybeliada, Istanbul. The manuscript codex consists of copies of decrees concerning Wallachia, issued both from the Sultan and the Grand Vizier, dated from 1818 to 1820. In this paper, we present a decree issued on 17 Şevval 1234 (=Monday, 28 July/9 August 1819) by the Grand Vizier, in response to a petition by the merchants of the Kapan. In their petition, the merchants of the Kapan complained that the animals incoming in herds to the imperial capital were not, as used in the past, slaughtered before August 15, in order to be sold to them, but later, in order to gain better prices for their skins. In particular, they used spits for killing the animals, torturing them. In response to this complaint, the Grand Vizier ordered that the slaughter of animals must be done according to the “ancient custom” (deb-i kadîm üzere), before August 15,“without tormenting the animals” (hayvanâta ezâ etmeden). Even if both the petition of the merchants and the response of the Grand Vizier had clearly economic issues in mind, they both share and claim as justification for their argument an ethical concept suggesting not to torture animals during their slaughter. In our research, we will focus, to the extent possible, especially into the word “ezâ” in the vocabulary of Ottoman legal and administrative texts.

Ufuk Adak (Altınbaş University), “The Governance of Horse Breeding in the Late Ottoman Empire” (EN)

The Ottomans employed horses dominantly in the military, transportation, and postal  service. In the nineteenth-century world, horses were still prestigious and diplomatic gifts that  the sultans and emperors gave to each other. The exhibition of Ottoman horses in Paris in 1900,  and the famous photo albums of Abdulhamid II that allocated a special section for his horses  clearly show the economic importance and symbolism of this animal in the late Ottoman  Empire. However, due to droughts occurred in the Empire finding purebred Arabian horses in  the nineteenth century was not very easy. This paper aims to examine the governance of horse  breeding in the late Ottoman Empire. By delving into the primary sources drawn from various  collections of the Prime Ministry’s Ottoman Archives (BOA) in Istanbul, this paper attempts to  shed light on the processes of horse breeding with a special focus on the State’s regulations to  protect the Ottoman economy and also increase the number of horses in the Empire. I argue that  Ottoman officials closely followed the international developments in horse breeding and trading  in the nineteenth century and they shaped their trading and customs policies to protect the  number and quality of horses in the Empire.

Yasemin Yılmaz (Düzce University & Koç University Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations), “In Death Too: The Role of Animals in Burial Practices in Anatolian Prehistoric Societies” (TR)

Traces of life revealed in burial practices unearthed in archaeological sites are important ways of reconstructing ancient societies. With the conscious burial of the dead, objects and animal remains also accompany the deceased. In burials, remnants varying by period such as everyday items, jewelry, shells, pigments, and other items used in daily life are observed. Although not common, there are examples where sometimes the entire animal, sometimes part of the animal, or sometimes a bone or bone fragment of the animal is deliberately placed in the grave with the deceased. Another form of the relationship between death and animals is observed in the areas chosen by humans to bury their dead. An area where an animal bone is placed can also be preferred as a space for burying the dead. With the transition to sedentary life and permanent settlements starting from the Neolithic Period without Pottery in Anatolia, living spaces are also used for the dead. Along with this period, remnants of burial practices of ancient societies also increase. The presentation aims to evaluate the place of human-animal association in burial practices, the meaning of death rituals, starting from the earliest settled societies, within the framework of archaeological remains in prehistoric Anatolian societies.

Ahmet Göksu (Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University) & Fatma Afyoncu (Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University), “From Martikor to Healing Lion Skin: Hayâtü’l-Hayevân in the Ottoman Empire” (TR)

Kemâleddin Demîrî’s (d. 1405) work “Hayâtü’l-Hayevân,” which examines living beings from various aspects, is a notable piece in Islamic literature. To understand this interest, it suffices to briefly examine the translations, summaries, and abridgments made after Demîrî (seven translations into Turkish and four into Persian from the 15th century onwards, ten summaries have been written, and there are 189 Arabic manuscripts recorded only in manuscript libraries in Turkey). In the work, besides verses, hadiths, stories, and poems involving animals, regulations regarding the use of animals as commodities, experiential knowledge regarding the medical and pharmaceutical uses of animals, in short, almost all themes concerning animals in daily life are present, which is again the most visible reason for this interest. The Turkish translations of “Hayâtü’l-Hayevân,” made by different names during the Ottoman period at different times, constitute an important part of the literature concerning animals in Anatolian and Turkish history. In this paper, we will attempt to examine five different translations of “Hayâtü’l-Hayevân” that we have identified in manuscript catalogs in Turkey (1474, Muhammad bin Sulaiman, Topkapı -Revan 1664; 1532, translator unknown, Ayasofya 2913; 1567, Bali Efendi, Halet Efendi 1367; 17th century, Muhammad Bosnevî, Şehit Ali Paşa 1823; and 1738, Abdulhalim bin Ali bin Mehmed, Halet Efendi-1627). As the work is quite extensive (approximately a thousand pages), a sample comparison has been made focusing on the lion, which is an important subject. The ruling elites constitute a part of the group interested in this work, which has been translated at different times and repeatedly transcribed. Three of the five Turkish translations we examined mention the names of sultans and statesmen. The inclusion of religious sciences in the work may have led to the selection of religious scholars for translation and also generated interest among the ulema, as three of the translators we examined belong to the ulema class. Furthermore, when looking at the five translations, the translators’ additions and omissions in the tradition of translation and authorship can be interpreted as an indication that information about animals is constantly being constructed in a dynamic manner. In our presentation, we will attempt to analyze the approaches to the practical and theoretical treatment of animals over time through the reception of “Hayâtü’l-Hayevân.”

Sinan Akıllı (Cappadocia University) & Buket Köremezli (Cappadocia University), “An Enchanting Pestilence: Discourses on Starlings before and after the Turkish Republican Era” (EN)

Human and nonhuman species have evidently coevolved in Anatolia since the Neolithic Age. The common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), more popularly recognized by their mesmerizing flocks known as murmurations, is a highly adaptive species and thus has rapidly adapted to living near areas inhabited by humans or in man-made environments such as farms, fields, and orchards once human societies began to settle on land. As a result of this proximity, from at least the Classical Age onward, the human-starling encounters in the Mediterranean world has been defined by anthropocentric forces such as language, culture, economic base, and the dominant political discourse. This native species of Anatolia has had a visible place in the evolution of the Turkish society since the eleventh century when nomadic Turkish tribes first began to arrive in Anatolia and then settled there permanently. From the word that signifies the starling in Turkish (i.e., sığırcık in modern Turkish) to the powers and meanings attributed to this avian, the “discourse on starlings” seems to have coevolved in Anatolia in line with the evolution of the human society.

In this paper, we offer, adopting a Foucauldian point of view, an analysis which argues that the “discourse on starlings” in Turkish Anatolia has evolved during the transition from the theocratic, agricultural Ottoman Empire to the secular and modern Republic of Türkiye. During this transition, there was clear shift from the superstition-ridden discourse (i.e., the myths of starling lords, and starling waters) of an agricultural society to one that reflects the tropes and concerns of an industrialized and mechanized society (as exemplified by Yaman Koray’s novel Sığırcıklar -Starlings- published in 1967). Put differently, the starlings evolved in the popular imaginary from being miraculous agents of God’s will to a pestilence in the fields, damaging crops and attacking the livelihood of the Anatolian peasant.

Ebru Gizem Ayten (Middle East Technical University), “Dichotomy of Pigs in Hittites: Dirty but Necessary? An Assessment on Zooarchaeological Evidence of Hittite Cities” (EN)

Although it is clearly stated in the Hittite religious cuneiform tablets that the pig should be  considered dirty and should not be allowed to enter temple, the domestic pig remains found in  different archaeological contexts show that there is a contradiction between religious beliefs  and life. The zooarchaeological remains found in the Hittite settlements prove that there is pig  breeding and consumption in the Hittite cities, although not as common as sheep / goat and  cattle breeding and consumption. In addition, the presence of domestic pig and wild boar images  in the Hittite material culture, such as statuettes and reliefs, rituals involving pigs and the  presence of Hittite laws about domestic pigs reinforce this peculiar contradiction. One of  reasons for this contradiction is often based on social class differences. It has been argued that  pig husbandry is preferred by low social classes due to the fact that pigs can be fed by domestic  waste and multiply rapidly hence they are a source of cheap meat. Another alternative to this  statement could be ethnicity. Hittites obtained different cultural elements during conquests of  different states. For this reason, it would be wrong to argue that everyone living in the Hittite  borders had a similar diet. Therefore, the presence of pig bones in archaeological contexts  despite of the pig taboo in the Hittite texts may also be related to the diet of people from different  ethnic origins. It will be useful to examine the spatial context of animal remains from selected  sites contexts along with other material culture elements, to understand the contradiction of pig  consumption in Hittites and to reveal the social and economic effects of pig husbandry in  Anatolia.

Irmak Ertör (Boğaziçi University), “Fish and Fisher People as Part of Anatolian and Turkish History” (EN)

Fish species and fishers have been an important part of the social and economic life of  especially coastal Anatolia. The most well-known historical piece with a comprehensive  study on fish species and fish markets in this geography is the one written by Karekin Deveciyan, the head of the fish markets in Istanbul, called “Türkiye’de Balık ve  Balıkçılık”, which was first published in Ottoman Turkish in 1915, and then translated to  French in 1926. Other glimpses into the history of fish and fishers often come from old Istanbul pictures, portraying Istanbul’s streets with big bluefin tuna or swordfish on the  shoulders of vendors, as well as local fish markets in the city center or later in different  districts of an expanding city. These images already indicate the changing nature of fish  species, fishers, and fish markets. They imply the transformation of marine ecosystems (as well as species that have been going extinct or yields that are getting smaller in size),  fisheries actors, and fisheries policies. Focusing on Istanbul, this study will first intend to  historicize small-scale fishing culture, and then scrutinize the current political economy  and ecology of fisheries in Istanbul and Turkey. The relatively lesser-known human and  non-human actors in this animal history currently show some species in danger of  extinction: both fish and small-scale fishers. Against this threat of extinction and socially  and ecologically destructive industrial fishing practices and fisheries policies, small scale fishing cooperatives in the Istanbul region—organized under the Association of  Istanbul Fishing Cooperatives, called Istanbul Su Ürünleri Kooperatifleri Birliği—have  been mobilized social actors highlighting social and ecological injustices they confront.  This research will thus explore ecological and social transformations fish and small scale fishers have been experiencing and examine the political agency Istanbul Birlik has acquired through its local and international alliances striving for food justice and food  sovereignty. The methodology of this study is based on four years of participant  observation and participatory action methods as well as in-depth interviews conducted  with Istanbul Birlik members.

Büşra Arabacı (Hacettepe University), “Big Fish Eat the Little One: Extinction of Species of Cimcim during the Integration of Beyşehir Region to the World Economy” (EN)

Cimcim, literally translating to ‘tiny thing,’ was the smallest fish species inhabiting Beyşehir Lake. It served as a crucial source of nutrition for disadvantaged people, swimming close to the shore and making itself accessible for hand-catching. In the 1970s, foreign zoologists visiting the region advised Turkish government officials to release a new fish species to the lake, to enhance fishing activities. This newcomer, locally known as “monster of the lake,” was perch, known for its aggressive nature and penchant for consuming smaller fish. The introduction of perch boosted commercial activities in the region, with six factories experiencing a surge in fillet production. These fillets were exported to European and Middle Eastern countries, connecting the lake and its environs to the global economy. However, this economic transformation came at a cost, leading to endangerment of at least four species in the lake, along with Cimcim.

Today, Cimcim survives only in the memories of local people who once earned their livelihoods through fishing activities. This proposed research aims to explore the intricate relationship between fish and human by employing the oral history method. Interviews with local individuals aged between 40 and 70 will provide valuable insights into the impact of introducing the perch on their lives. The findings from these interviews will be compared and integrated with information from the Turkish Republican Archives, offering a comprehensive understanding of the reciprocal fish-human interaction during Beyşehir’s integration into the capitalist economy.

Fatma Esen (Georgetown University), “Anchovy in Trabzon: From a Livelihood for the Coastal Poor to Canned Fish for Foreign Countries” (EN)

The aim of this paper is to assess the Trabzon provincial yearbooks, with a focus on the fishes of the Black Sea, particularly anchovy, and to explore how its definition transformed from being a voluminous food source for the region’s needy population into a proposition for a governance strategy concerning the abundant anchovy sources. This strategy aimed to provide job opportunities for the region’s population and increase national capital by exporting the fish to foreign countries in canned form, as directed by the editors of the yearbooks.

The primary source for this paper is the provincial yearbooks (salnames) from 1892 to 1905 and my methodology will involve a deep reading of them and will integrate Foucault’s concept of governmentality. I also intend to incorporate information on dolphin hunting in the Surmene region. My argument aligns with the discussions about the Ottoman state making in the 19th century, emphasizing the state’s concerns over taxation, perceiving the population and the land as a source of wealth. However, in this paper, I would argue that the abundant source of anchovy was also the part of this process and the proposal for the commercialization of anchovy as an economic resource originated from the bottom up in Trabzon. Furthermore, it was presented to the state for the betterment of the region’s population. Within this context, the main theme of the paper will be how the editors of the yearbooks evaluated the anchovy of Black Sea in Trabzon and the transformation of their perception over time, with the aim of exploring possible job vacancies for the population and subsidizing the lack of economic capital in the region.

Elisa Palomino (Smithsonian Arctic Studies Center), “Mesopotamian Magic: Fish Skin Rituals as Technologies of the Past” (EN)

Ancient Mesopotamians dwelled in a world surrounded by benevolent and malevolent supernatural powers embedded in objects, locations, plants, and animals. Governed by gods and kings, their society maintained a connection with the divine, interpreting any object or event as a message from the gods. Rituals conducted by the king, priests, and scholars sought protection and purity, evolving with the expansion of city-states and the emergence of city gods like Enki, associated with fish, a staple food and symbol of primordial wisdom.

The fish-cloaked apkallu, a hybrid creature part-human and part carp from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a survivor of the archetypal Deluge, embodies the connection between the terrestrial and watery realms, a link to the underworld. Depictions of fish-skin apkallu can be found in water basins for ritual cleansing, amulets, cylinder seals, wall reliefs and clay figurines signifying their protective and purifying roles. In Mesopotamian medicine, illness was attributed to evil forces. Rituals were conducted by the Asipu, while fish-garbed figures provided protection and purification.

Fish skins, often overlooked in archaeological studies, served not only as food or offerings but also as materials for clothing and rituals. The processing of skins was a vital craft in Mesopotamian society, using various tanning and dyeing agents like oak bark and sumac leaves. Despite the lack of archaeological evidence, ancient texts and depictions suggest the use of fish skins in Mesopotamia. The integration of natural resources into daily life reflected a deep spiritual connection with the environment, personifying all creatures and worshiping natural forces. Fish skin clothing symbolised a connection with the animal and reverence for its essence.

This paper challenges academia’s dismissal of ancient magical systems, emphasising the significance of fish skin practices in Mesopotamian civilisations. Rooted in intimate environmental knowledge, these practices challenge contemporary perspectives on ancient civilisations.

Zeynep Akçakaya (Independent Scholar), “Locusts, Science, Ottoman State and Humans: Unraveling the Dynamics of an Interdependent Relationship” (EN)

Since the beginnings of agrarian societies, humans developed symbiotic relationships with animals,  leveraging their assistance in production, e.g., oxen, horses, or relying on them income-generating  assets, e.g., sheep, silkworms, but also as the adversaries of production such as locusts which had always been perennial threats. Locust plagues have sparked crises, especially famines, drawing the attention of rulers. However, it wasn’t until the 19th century that this attention turned into central policies, aligning with the era’s burgeoning emphasis on agricultural development.

By analyzing the changes in these central locust policies through the evolving discursive concept of science, this presentation discusses the dynamics among locusts, humans, and the state. To Moore the  job of science in this process is to make the nature legible for capital accumulation and job of the state  is to ensure and enforce the capitalist mechanism. Together they constitute an organic whole,  indicating a new pattern of environment-making. While agreeing with Moore regarding the eventual  dominance of the capitalist mechanism, putting whole nature—including humans and units of nature  without the duality between the two—to work for capital, it remains essential to elucidate the unfolding dynamics along this path. By scrutinizing how the content and significance of scientific methodologies in the state’s discourse evolved from forced mobilization of locals in the late 19th century to the use of chemicals in the early 20th century, this presentation aims to shed light the nuances in these dynamics and interdependent relationship among locusts, humans, and the state. It argues that the fluctuations and limitations of state actions, justified by science, uncover the  contradictory and mutual interplay among these elements, projecting how this relationship evolved  over time.

Elanur Ocaktan (Istanbul Medeniyet University), “Exploring Bees in Anatolia from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic” (TR)

The climate and geographical conditions of Anatolia are conducive to beekeeping.The prevalence of  beekeeping in Anatolia can be attributed to several factors, including its relatively low cost com pared to other agricultural activities, minimal labor requirements, high profitability within a short  period, and the diverse range of products such as honey and beeswax that cater to a broad market,  when compared to other livestock activities. This article aims to examine the relationship between  Anatolian people and beekeeping practices. Initially, the characteristics and species of Anatolian  bees are discussed. Then, the evolution of beekeeping techniques in Anatolia from the Ottomans to  the Republic period is explored, along with its impact on the lives of beekeepers. The effectiveness  of beekeeping and honey production in various sectors during the Ottoman Empire, as well as a brief overview of taxes levied on hives, is provided. Furthermore, the transition in beekeeping prac tices from traditional to modern hives, influenced by the expansion of the sugar industry, is high lighted. Emphasis is placed on the significance of transitioning to modern beekeeping techniques,  supported by an analysis of key texts such as “Ameli ve Fenni Arıcılık” by A. Ferid, “Ameli ve  Nazari Arıcılık” by Mehmed Ali, and “Kadınlara Ameli Sanayi-i Ziraiye Dersleri: Arıcılık Sanatı”  by İhsan. Additionally, the historical practices of honey production in Anatolia from the Ottomans  to the Republic era are explored. The role of beekeeping and honey production in society and  household economies, particularly their economic significance is discussed.

Ayşenur Mulla (University of Silesia in Katowice), “Locusts in Late Antique and Byzantine Religious Writings” (EN)

This paper argues that insects cannot be understood from just one perspective, even though the first thought that comes to mind is that most insects evoke a feeling of  disgust and threat, and cannot be seen in a positive light unless they appear pleasant, such as ladybugs and butterflies. This paper offers a case study of locusts in particular and their various symbolic meanings in Byzantine religious texts. The aim is to demonstrate the multi-dimensional connotations of locusts. The analysis will categorize locusts into two main aspects: first, locust invasions as threats for society and indicators of God’s divine justice. Locusts are often considered destructive; they can cause famine by decimating crops and infesting environments. Consequently, a swarm of locusts is predominantly perceived as a bad omen or a sign of God’s wrath, exemplified by John Chrysostom’s interpretation of the locust attack in Exodus as an indication of divine judgment. Another instance is John of Damascus’s emphasis on locusts not harming crops without divine command. The second aspect of the locust concept in Byzantine religious writings is their association with sanctified figures, exploring the theological and symbolic implications. In this second part, the paper explores the relationship between saints and locusts, such as the Cappadocian bishop Gregory of Nazianzus’s reference to Matthew, and emphasis on John the Baptist’s diet of wild honey and locusts. Beyond merely serving as sustenance for holy men and ascetics, the interaction between saints and locusts proves significant; for instance, when a locust infestation struck Constantinople, Constantine the Jew miraculously dispelled the swarm with a small amount of holy water, resulting in a more fertile harvest. This paper will, therefore, offer a multi-dimensional concept of the locusts in religious writings, such as hagiographies, biblical commentaries, and homilies between Late Antiquity and the Byzantine era.

Efe Erünal (Koç University), “Interwoven Existence: The Interplay of People, Worms, and Mulberry Trees in Bursa’s Silk Industry in the Mid-Nineteenth Century” (EN)

This paper examines the cohabitation of humans, silkworms, and mulberry trees that underpinned raw silk production in the mid-nineteenth-century Bursa region of northwestern Anatolia. As a historical global center for raw silk and silk-cloth manufacturing in the Ottoman Empire, Bursa played a pivotal role in the Silk Road trade. Annually, local residents engaged in a unique collaboration, nurturing silkworms in their homes and feeding them with leaves from privately owned mulberry trees, creating a distinctive cultural legacy while generating significant income.

The Industrial Revolution brought technological advancements that reshaped labor relations. The mechanization of silk reeling in France and of cotton fabric manufacturing in Britain resulted in large-scale deindustrialization of the reeling and weaving sectors, transforming traditional silk yarn producers and weavers into home-based cocoon raisers. The importation of high volumes of inexpensive cotton cloth and the establishment of European-owned filatures in Bursa from the 1840s onwards marked a crucial turning point, significantly boosting the region’s raw silk production.

While silk production in the Ottoman Empire has been extensively studied in different contexts, this paper addresses a notable gap by taking this matter at the subregional and household levels and specifically focusing on the multifaceted human-non-human relationship underlying silk production during the advent of mechanized production.

Using tax surveys and census data from the 1840s covering the entire Bursa region, the paper, for the first time, quantitatively analyzes interactions among individuals, silkworms, and trees. Scrutinizing the variables of cocoon production, income generated from this activity per household, as well as household size and the potential space allocated for silkworm raising in them, the paper will offer valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of this relationship.

Supplemented by travelogues, consular reports, and various other sources, the investigation extends beyond economic aspects to explore the cultural dimensions of cocoon raising. It sheds light on traditions associated with this livelihood, revealing cultural practices that sustained the people of Bursa until the latter part of the twentieth century.

Chair: Dan Beaver (Penn State University)

Dilara Avcı (Kırşehir Ahi Evran University), “Erken Modern Osmanlı Filibe’sinde Koyun ve Koyunun Önemi” (TR)

In the early modern period, livestock activities were significant in the Ottoman Balkans. Small ruminant husbandry, especially sheep farming, was crucial to ensure the supply of meat to the palace and the population of Istanbul. Many of the sheep sent to the capital were sourced from Filibe (present-day Plovdiv). Filibe held an important position in supplying sheep to Istanbul due to its proximity to the capital. Celepkeşans played a vital role, especially in the provision of meat supplies to Istanbul. Sheep were sent from Filibe to Istanbul through celepkeşans at regular intervals and specific periods according to the demands from the capital. The breed and physical characteristics of the desired sheep were meticulously specified. During the early modern period, sheep and lamb meat were indispensable for  Ottoman cuisine. While beef was less preferred, meat dishes were predominantly made from sheep or lamb meat. When there was a shortage of meat in the capital, shipments of sheep from other regions were expected to meet the demand, adhering to the specified characteristics. It would be challenging to isolate sheep as a subject from the Ottoman archives because, as expected, animals were documented by humans. Individuals living in the early modern Ottoman Balkans or Anatolia included sheep in documents as long as it provided them benefits, both in terms of food and taxation. The status of sheep in early modern Plovdiv (Filibe) will be elucidated through the use of Mühimme registers, Sicils (administrative registers), Tahrir registers (land survey records), and travelogues. This presentation will focus on sheep husbandry activities in the Balkans, particularly in Filibe, during the late 16th century, and explain Filibe’s role in supplying meat to Istanbul. Additionally, the importance of the environment in sheep husbandry will be detailed, particularly in the context of Filibe.

Stefan Stojadinović (Istanbul University), “Sheep Farming in the Ottoman Balkans: A Case Study of the Niš Valley in the 16th Century” (EN)

Sheep farming played an important role in the economy of the Ottoman Empire,  particularly within the Balkan Peninsula, due to its favorable geographic characteristics for this economic activity. The Niš Valley emerged as a significant region where sheep breeding  intensified, benefiting from its geographical features, abundant pastures, meadows, and a ready supply of potable water. This research focuses on sheep husbandry in the Kaza Niš based on two cadastral surveys (Tapu Tahrir) and two Adet-i Ağnam and Resmi Ağıl defterleri from the 16th  century.

The early 16th-century cadastral survey reveals widespread engagement in sheep farming across almost every village, proving to be a lucrative source of income for timar holders. This paper analyzes the economic significance of this sector for rural households, urban economies, and regional and global trade. However, in the latter half of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire experienced significant climatic changes adversely affecting sheep breeding. This led to a decreased supply of sheep to cities throughout the empire, particularly Istanbul, thereby shaking one of the pillars of the Ottoman economy – the provisioning.

While the cadastral survey from the late 16th century scarcely mentions the tax on sheep  and goats, the Adet-i Ağnam and Resmi Ağıl defterleri from the same period show minimal changes  compared to the first half of the century. In light of these discrepancies, this study aims to  investigate the main causes contributing to the disparities in the records and examine how these changes influenced rural and urban economies and regional and global trade by the end of the 16th  century.

Deniz İnce (Boğaziçi University), “The Turkish State’s Sheep Policy Between 1930 and 1939: Merino Sheep as ‘National Assets’” (EN)

An important amount of research has been conducted on national economy discourses and practices during the early Republican period. These studies have exclusively focused on state-led import substitute industrialization and the formation of a national bourgeoisie. However, the impacts of national economy policies on non-human animals and human-animal relations remain an understudied field of research.

With the national economy discourse gaining prominence, Merino sheep started to be referred to as “national assets” along with other non-human animals and deemed useful for the economy, especially after 1908. During the 1930s, the state promoted the breeding of Merino sheep and created a nationalistic discourse around the breed through national economy policies and state-led industrialization projects. As a result, Merino sheep were “reformed” both biologically and symbolically through state-led initiatives ranging from the establishment of laboratories and state farms to providing rewards to the breeders.

This study investigates the historical trajectory of Merino sheep in Anatolia by highlighting the intersections of economic policies, state interventions, and the construction of a nationalistic discourse. In doing so, it will explore the transformation of the early Turkish Republic’s approach to Merino sheep, revealing their integral role in supplying raw materials for industrialization, focusing on the pivotal period of 1930–39 within the broader context of late Ottoman and early Republican history. I argue that to fully understand the impact of the national economy approach, it is essential to examine how non-human animals were integrated into the changing economic, social, and political landscape, similar to other historical actors or groups.

Donna Landry (University of Kent), “The Gift Horse Who Refuses to Be Gifted: Ottoman Multispecies Storytelling?” (EN)

This paper contributes to the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC)-funded network, ‘Rethinking Fables in the Age of Global Environmental Crisis’, led by Kaori Nagai of the University of Kent. It seeks to understand how animal agency operated in a specific environment, bringing about a crisis, not in the natural world, but in the naturalcultural one. How might we most productively read Evliya Çelebi’s account of the ‘Arab thoroughbred spectacle’ (‘Temâşâ-y› garîbe-i küheylân’) that transpired during the Ottomans’ 1665 diplomatic peace mission to Vienna? The proposed gift horse, seeing only ‘black hat wearing’ (i.e., non-Muslim) grooms in his future, rebels, employing species-specific fight and flight responses. Death and destruction result, with the horse expiring in the square where in 1529 a Circassian cavalryman and his charger were martyred. This cross-cultural exchange is fraught by cultural difference and a horse speaking a political truth. Seeking to ratify a peace treaty, the Ottomans become a legend through their horse’s actions: ‘There were so many kafirs injured it is still a legend in kafiristan’. Might this account be read as an instance of Ottoman multispecies storytelling, in which, according to Walter Benjamin’s model of the storyteller as adapted by Yeliz Özay, a story is kept ‘free from explanation as one recounts it’ and ‘thus the narrative achieves an amplitude that information lacks’? If with John Hartigan we read with both ethological and ethnographic lenses, a rich instance of intercultural interspecies literacy, and illiteracy, emerges. Might we follow Laura Brown in her investigation of ‘cultural fables’, which ‘can tell a story that seems to grasp the processes of history with a peculiar discernment, or to represent the contradictions of such processes with a striking clarity’? What does it mean that horses are represented by Evliya as Ottoman-identified cultural agents in themselves?

Alan Mikhail (Yale University), “Thinking with Ottoman Animals” (EN)

This presentation will be improvised, reflecting on the conference papers in light of the field of Ottoman environmental history.

Nancy J. Jacobs (Brown University), “Reflections on the Conference Proceedings from an Africanist Perspective” (EN)

This presentation will be improvised, reflecting on the conference papers in light of the field of African environmental history.